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Agro-environmental effects due to altered cultivation practices with genetically modified herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape and implications for monitoring. A review in Agronomy for Sustainable Development, Vol.29, n°1 ([01/01/2009])

Public ISBD [article]  inAgronomy for Sustainable Development > Vol.29, n°1 [01/01/2009] . - p. 31-42 Titre : Agro-environmental effects due to altered cultivation practices with genetically modified herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape and implications for monitoring. A review Type de document : Article Année de publication : 2009 Article en page(s) : p. 31-42 Langues : Français (fre) Catégories : [Thesagri] herbicide [Thesagri] technique culturale Note de contenu : Genetically modified herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape or canola (Brassica napus L.) is at the forefront of being introduced into European agriculture. Concerns have been raised about how genetically modified oilseed rape cultivation and the modified cropping practices might impair the agro-environment. The present review compiles and categorises evidenced and potential agro-environmental effects of cultivating genetically modified oilseed rape and assesses the data quality of published references. Cropping practice changes were identified for (a) the introduction of genetically modified oilseed rape cultivation per se, (b) time, mode and rate of herbicide application, and spraying frequencies, (c) soil tillage and cover crops, (d) crop rotations and (e) coexistence measures to avoid mixing of genetically modified and non-genetically modified cultivation systems. Agro-environmental effects identified are directly linked to the herbicide tolerance technology and may impact ecological processes on various scales. The herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape biology, genotype and co-existence constraints with neighbouring agricultural systems also entail various agro-environmental effects. The potential and especially the well-evidenced adverse effects on the agro-environment, according to European legislation, require a systematic monitoring of genetically modified oilseed rape. The most evidenced adverse effects to be monitored are persistence and/or spread of feral herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape and volunteers, transfer of herbicide tolerance to wild relatives and decline in agrobiodiversity, and development of herbicide tolerance in weeds, as well as adverse effects on field organisms and/or soil bio-geochemical cycles. Other well-evidenced potential adverse effects include reduced crop rotation options, increased late-season herbicide drift and pollution, and implications for microbial and faunal activities due to altered agrochemical profiles, as well as implications of feral herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape on neighbouring habitats [article] Agro-environmental effects due to altered cultivation practices with genetically modified herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape and implications for monitoring. A review [Article] . - 2009 . - p. 31-42. Langues : Français (fre) in Agronomy for Sustainable Development > Vol.29, n°1 [01/01/2009] . - p. 31-42 Catégories : [Thesagri] herbicide [Thesagri] technique culturale Note de contenu : Genetically modified herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape or canola (Brassica napus L.) is at the forefront of being introduced into European agriculture. Concerns have been raised about how genetically modified oilseed rape cultivation and the modified cropping practices might impair the agro-environment. The present review compiles and categorises evidenced and potential agro-environmental effects of cultivating genetically modified oilseed rape and assesses the data quality of published references. Cropping practice changes were identified for (a) the introduction of genetically modified oilseed rape cultivation per se, (b) time, mode and rate of herbicide application, and spraying frequencies, (c) soil tillage and cover crops, (d) crop rotations and (e) coexistence measures to avoid mixing of genetically modified and non-genetically modified cultivation systems. Agro-environmental effects identified are directly linked to the herbicide tolerance technology and may impact ecological processes on various scales. The herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape biology, genotype and co-existence constraints with neighbouring agricultural systems also entail various agro-environmental effects. The potential and especially the well-evidenced adverse effects on the agro-environment, according to European legislation, require a systematic monitoring of genetically modified oilseed rape. The most evidenced adverse effects to be monitored are persistence and/or spread of feral herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape and volunteers, transfer of herbicide tolerance to wild relatives and decline in agrobiodiversity, and development of herbicide tolerance in weeds, as well as adverse effects on field organisms and/or soil bio-geochemical cycles. Other well-evidenced potential adverse effects include reduced crop rotation options, increased late-season herbicide drift and pollution, and implications for microbial and faunal activities due to altered agrochemical profiles, as well as implications of feral herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape on neighbouring habitats

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Cadmium in soils and cereal grains after sewage-sludge application on French soils. A review / Denis Baize in Agronomy for Sustainable Development, Vol.29, n°1 ([01/01/2009])

Public ISBD [article]  inAgronomy for Sustainable Development > Vol.29, n°1 [01/01/2009] . - p. 175-184 Titre : Cadmium in soils and cereal grains after sewage-sludge application on French soils. A review Type de document : Article Auteurs : Denis Baize Année de publication : 2009 Article en page(s) : p. 175-184 Langues : Français (fre) Catégories : [Thesagri] cadmium [Thesagri] céréale [Thesagri] sol Note de contenu : Recycling sewage sludges as fertilisers on soils for crop production has several potential benefits such as providing large amounts of phosphorous and organic matter. However, the spreading of urban sewage sludge is a constant cause of controversy because it is known to introduce potentially toxic trace metals into the soil, particularly cadmium. In order to clarify this debate, this review article presents a synthesis of the results of several studies carried out in France on the impact of sewage-sludge spreading. This article reports mainly Cd results but also some results on other trace metals such as Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb and Zn. Two kinds of data are presented: (1) soil data including total metal contents and data from partial extraction to evaluate the phytoavailable fractions, and (2) plant data including metal content of wheat, a major agricultural crop. The field experiments involved very different amounts of applied sewage sludges and Cd. Indeed, three categories of experiments stand out, the first and second involving high amounts of applied Cd, and the third involving low amounts of applied Cd: (1) during the 1970s and '80s, sludges with a high trace metal content, especially Cd, were spread at the INRA trials at Couhins experimental farm on sandy soils and in the Vexin area on silty topsoils. The quantities of applied Cd were very high, ranging from 3600 g to 641?000 g per ha. Here, the results show a notable impact on total Cd contents of topsoil and cereal grains. (2) Sludges containing high levels of industrial cadmium were spread on acid soils in the Limousin region for more than twenty years up to 1998. Topsoil Cd contents were measured in fields where the cadmium input was highest, of 300 to 600 g Cd per ha. Here, a clear increase in the Cd content of cereal grains was found. (3) During the 1990s and 2000s, numerous experiments with sewage-sludge applications compatible with the new French regulations of 1998 were implemented. The amounts of applied Cd were therefore much lower, from 0.6 to 270 g/ha. Here, no impact was detected on the composition of cereal grains. This review article concludes that the application of huge quantities of sewage sludges in the 1970s and '80s had a clear and long-lasting effect on both soil and grain Cd compositions. Nonetheless, spreading sewage sludge in accordance with the new French regulations had no significant impact on soil and cereal-grain Cd concentrations. [article] Cadmium in soils and cereal grains after sewage-sludge application on French soils. A review [Article] / Denis Baize . - 2009 . - p. 175-184. Langues : Français (fre) in Agronomy for Sustainable Development > Vol.29, n°1 [01/01/2009] . - p. 175-184 Catégories : [Thesagri] cadmium [Thesagri] céréale [Thesagri] sol Note de contenu : Recycling sewage sludges as fertilisers on soils for crop production has several potential benefits such as providing large amounts of phosphorous and organic matter. However, the spreading of urban sewage sludge is a constant cause of controversy because it is known to introduce potentially toxic trace metals into the soil, particularly cadmium. In order to clarify this debate, this review article presents a synthesis of the results of several studies carried out in France on the impact of sewage-sludge spreading. This article reports mainly Cd results but also some results on other trace metals such as Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb and Zn. Two kinds of data are presented: (1) soil data including total metal contents and data from partial extraction to evaluate the phytoavailable fractions, and (2) plant data including metal content of wheat, a major agricultural crop. The field experiments involved very different amounts of applied sewage sludges and Cd. Indeed, three categories of experiments stand out, the first and second involving high amounts of applied Cd, and the third involving low amounts of applied Cd: (1) during the 1970s and '80s, sludges with a high trace metal content, especially Cd, were spread at the INRA trials at Couhins experimental farm on sandy soils and in the Vexin area on silty topsoils. The quantities of applied Cd were very high, ranging from 3600 g to 641?000 g per ha. Here, the results show a notable impact on total Cd contents of topsoil and cereal grains. (2) Sludges containing high levels of industrial cadmium were spread on acid soils in the Limousin region for more than twenty years up to 1998. Topsoil Cd contents were measured in fields where the cadmium input was highest, of 300 to 600 g Cd per ha. Here, a clear increase in the Cd content of cereal grains was found. (3) During the 1990s and 2000s, numerous experiments with sewage-sludge applications compatible with the new French regulations of 1998 were implemented. The amounts of applied Cd were therefore much lower, from 0.6 to 270 g/ha. Here, no impact was detected on the composition of cereal grains. This review article concludes that the application of huge quantities of sewage sludges in the 1970s and '80s had a clear and long-lasting effect on both soil and grain Cd compositions. Nonetheless, spreading sewage sludge in accordance with the new French regulations had no significant impact on soil and cereal-grain Cd concentrations.

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Comparison of methods to assess the sustainability of agricultural systems. A review / C. Bockstaller ; Laurence Guichard in Agronomy for Sustainable Development, Vol.29, n°1 ([01/01/2009])

Public ISBD [article]  inAgronomy for Sustainable Development > Vol.29, n°1 [01/01/2009] . - p. 223-235 Titre : Comparison of methods to assess the sustainability of agricultural systems. A review Type de document : Article Auteurs : C. Bockstaller ; Laurence Guichard Année de publication : 2009 Article en page(s) : p. 223-235 Langues : Français (fre) Catégories : [Thesagri] nitrate [Thesagri] pesticide Note de contenu : Since the 1990s, numerous agri-environmental indicators and indicator-based methods have been developed to assess the adverse effects of cropping and farming systems such as water pollution by nitrates and pesticides, and gaseous emissions due to nitrogen inputs. This wealth of environmental indicators and assessment methods based on indicators raises issues on the quality of the methods and of the indicators, and on the relevancy of results. Evaluation and comparative studies are therefore needed to answer such issues. Here, we present four recent comparative studies selected for their illustrative value, first, to analyse the methodologies used for comparison of methods, and second, to highlight the main results of the four comparisons. The first study involves 23 indicators to address nitrate leaching. The second study involves 43 indicators to address pesticide risk. The third and fourth studies compare environmental assessment methods based on 4–5 indicators used in French and Upper Rhine plains (France, Germany and Switzerland). Both studies also compare the outputs of the methods and highlight the low degree of convergence between them. The approach proposed in the last study is the most elaborate among the four case studies. It could be used to develop a generic evaluation and comparison methodology. The review of those four case studies shows the need to formalise the methodology underlying any comparison work of indicators or evaluation methods. [article] Comparison of methods to assess the sustainability of agricultural systems. A review [Article] / C. Bockstaller ; Laurence Guichard . - 2009 . - p. 223-235. Langues : Français (fre) in Agronomy for Sustainable Development > Vol.29, n°1 [01/01/2009] . - p. 223-235 Catégories : [Thesagri] nitrate [Thesagri] pesticide Note de contenu : Since the 1990s, numerous agri-environmental indicators and indicator-based methods have been developed to assess the adverse effects of cropping and farming systems such as water pollution by nitrates and pesticides, and gaseous emissions due to nitrogen inputs. This wealth of environmental indicators and assessment methods based on indicators raises issues on the quality of the methods and of the indicators, and on the relevancy of results. Evaluation and comparative studies are therefore needed to answer such issues. Here, we present four recent comparative studies selected for their illustrative value, first, to analyse the methodologies used for comparison of methods, and second, to highlight the main results of the four comparisons. The first study involves 23 indicators to address nitrate leaching. The second study involves 43 indicators to address pesticide risk. The third and fourth studies compare environmental assessment methods based on 4–5 indicators used in French and Upper Rhine plains (France, Germany and Switzerland). Both studies also compare the outputs of the methods and highlight the low degree of convergence between them. The approach proposed in the last study is the most elaborate among the four case studies. It could be used to develop a generic evaluation and comparison methodology. The review of those four case studies shows the need to formalise the methodology underlying any comparison work of indicators or evaluation methods.

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Conversion to organic farming: a multidimensional research object at the crossroads of agricultural and social sciences. A review / Stephane Bellon ; Claire Lamine in Agronomy for Sustainable Development, Vol.29, n°1 ([01/01/2009])

Public ISBD [article]  inAgronomy for Sustainable Development > Vol.29, n°1 [01/01/2009] . - p. 97-112 Titre : Conversion to organic farming: a multidimensional research object at the crossroads of agricultural and social sciences. A review Type de document : Article Auteurs : Stephane Bellon ; Claire Lamine Année de publication : 2009 Article en page(s) : p. 97-112 Langues : Français (fre) Catégories : [Thesagri] agriculture [Thesagri] sciences sociales Note de contenu : Literature on the conversion from intensive to organic farming is scarce. However, both the conversion of farmers to organic farming and of consumers to organic food are the driving forces for the development of the organic sector. In this review, we combine agricultural and social scientists' viewpoints for a critical appraisal of literature on conversion to organic food and farming. First, a brief historical retrospective enables us to refer the scientific production to the institutional and economic context over the past decades. Secondly, we review the methods used to analyse conversion in agricultural and social sciences, and show that emphasis is most often laid upon the effects of conversion and the motivations to convert, on the basis of comparative approaches with so-called conventional agriculture. Therefore, the literature minimises the importance of transitional aspects and trajectories, and rarely approaches conversion as a longer process than its legal duration and from a wider point of view. Thirdly, we examine the paradigms of input efficiency and system redesign, which frame discussions about transitions in agriculture, beyond organics, and therefore helps shed light on sustainability issues. We suggest that analysing conversion and more generally transitions in agriculture as multidimensional issues, involving both production and social practices, entails interdisciplinary approaches and the redefinition of some central research topics. [article] Conversion to organic farming: a multidimensional research object at the crossroads of agricultural and social sciences. A review [Article] / Stephane Bellon ; Claire Lamine . - 2009 . - p. 97-112. Langues : Français (fre) in Agronomy for Sustainable Development > Vol.29, n°1 [01/01/2009] . - p. 97-112 Catégories : [Thesagri] agriculture [Thesagri] sciences sociales Note de contenu : Literature on the conversion from intensive to organic farming is scarce. However, both the conversion of farmers to organic farming and of consumers to organic food are the driving forces for the development of the organic sector. In this review, we combine agricultural and social scientists' viewpoints for a critical appraisal of literature on conversion to organic food and farming. First, a brief historical retrospective enables us to refer the scientific production to the institutional and economic context over the past decades. Secondly, we review the methods used to analyse conversion in agricultural and social sciences, and show that emphasis is most often laid upon the effects of conversion and the motivations to convert, on the basis of comparative approaches with so-called conventional agriculture. Therefore, the literature minimises the importance of transitional aspects and trajectories, and rarely approaches conversion as a longer process than its legal duration and from a wider point of view. Thirdly, we examine the paradigms of input efficiency and system redesign, which frame discussions about transitions in agriculture, beyond organics, and therefore helps shed light on sustainability issues. We suggest that analysing conversion and more generally transitions in agriculture as multidimensional issues, involving both production and social practices, entails interdisciplinary approaches and the redefinition of some central research topics.

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Integration of soil structure variations with time and space into models for crop management. A review / Jean Roger-Estrade ; G. Richard ; A.R Dexter in Agronomy for Sustainable Development, Vol.29, n°1 ([01/01/2009])

Public ISBD [article]  inAgronomy for Sustainable Development > Vol.29, n°1 [01/01/2009] . - p. 135-142 Titre : Integration of soil structure variations with time and space into models for crop management. A review Type de document : Article Auteurs : Jean Roger-Estrade ; G. Richard ; A.R Dexter Année de publication : 2009 Article en page(s) : p. 135-142 Langues : Français (fre) Note de contenu : Soil structure plays a major role in the design of new crop management systems. For instance, the transition from conventional to no-tillage changes soil structure, which, in turn, has implications on crop yield greenhouse gas emissions, and pesticide and nitrate leaching. Modelling soil structure at field scale faces two main issues: (1) the spatial variability and (2) the temporal variability. Here, we review how spatial variability of soil structure is taken into account in water transfer models at field scale. We discuss the effects of soil structure on hydraulic properties. We present options to model soil structure effects using pedotransfer functions or calculations based on pore network geometry. Then we review studies on water transfer. Here, we show the utility of one-dimensional (1-D) and 2-D models, and the range of soil profile partitions. In the second part, we study a mean to model the temporal variation of soil structure. We propose an indicator of soil structure dynamics based on the proportion of compacted clods in the tilled layer. This indicator was measured from the observation face of soil pits. We studied this indicator in a long-term field experiment involving various risks of compaction. The results showed that this indicator gave a more precise description of the time course changes in soil structure than the mean soil bulk density measured on the same experimental plots. Lastly, we discuss the principles of a model that predicts the evolution of this indicator under different soil tillage and climatic conditions. This model can be used to evaluate the effects of different crop management systems on soil structure and soil water transfer. [article] Integration of soil structure variations with time and space into models for crop management. A review [Article] / Jean Roger-Estrade ; G. Richard ; A.R Dexter . - 2009 . - p. 135-142. Langues : Français (fre) in Agronomy for Sustainable Development > Vol.29, n°1 [01/01/2009] . - p. 135-142 Note de contenu : Soil structure plays a major role in the design of new crop management systems. For instance, the transition from conventional to no-tillage changes soil structure, which, in turn, has implications on crop yield greenhouse gas emissions, and pesticide and nitrate leaching. Modelling soil structure at field scale faces two main issues: (1) the spatial variability and (2) the temporal variability. Here, we review how spatial variability of soil structure is taken into account in water transfer models at field scale. We discuss the effects of soil structure on hydraulic properties. We present options to model soil structure effects using pedotransfer functions or calculations based on pore network geometry. Then we review studies on water transfer. Here, we show the utility of one-dimensional (1-D) and 2-D models, and the range of soil profile partitions. In the second part, we study a mean to model the temporal variation of soil structure. We propose an indicator of soil structure dynamics based on the proportion of compacted clods in the tilled layer. This indicator was measured from the observation face of soil pits. We studied this indicator in a long-term field experiment involving various risks of compaction. The results showed that this indicator gave a more precise description of the time course changes in soil structure than the mean soil bulk density measured on the same experimental plots. Lastly, we discuss the principles of a model that predicts the evolution of this indicator under different soil tillage and climatic conditions. This model can be used to evaluate the effects of different crop management systems on soil structure and soil water transfer.

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Iterative design and evaluation of rule-based system: methodology and case studies. A review / Philippe Debaeke ; Nathalie Munier-Jolain ; Michèle Bertrand in Agronomy for Sustainable Development, Vol.29, n°1 ([01/01/2009])

Public ISBD [article]  inAgronomy for Sustainable Development > Vol.29, n°1 [01/01/2009] . - p. 73-86 Titre : Iterative design and evaluation of rule-based system: methodology and case studies. A review Type de document : Article Auteurs : Philippe Debaeke ; Nathalie Munier-Jolain ; Michèle Bertrand Année de publication : 2009 Article en page(s) : p. 73-86 Langues : Français (fre) Catégories : [Thesagri] agriculture [Thesagri] expérimentation agricole [Thesagri] système de culture Note de contenu : The economic and regulatory context of crop production changes rapidly, but concerns about agricultural sustainability, including environmental impacts, are increasing steadily. To cope with complexity and uncertainty, innovative methodologies are required for designing, managing and evaluating prototype cropping systems. A generic approach combining iteratively design of cropping systems and evaluation of their performances is presented in this review article. It includes 5 main steps: (1) defining the set of goals and constraints for each cropping system, (2) identifying a suitable agronomic strategy, (3) formulating the consistent set of technical decision rules, (4) applying and evaluating the rule-based system, and (5) validating or refining the strategy and the rules. This methodology was applied to a range of environmental and production contexts, in a perspective of integrated crop production (ICP) prototyping. Three cropping system experiments conducted in France were brought together to demonstrate the potentialities of this system approach and discuss the methodological bottlenecks to address. The three case studies differed by the context of crop production and resource use: adaptation to limited irrigation water (Toulouse), introduction of innovative cropping systems (Versailles), and substitution of herbicides by non-chemical methods (Dijon). The consequences of the specific objectives in each case study on the experimental design and the evaluation process were discussed. Special attention was paid to the time step of the evaluation process, the duration of the improvement loops when prototyping cropping systems, the global evaluation of the systems and the evaluation of individual decision rules. [article] Iterative design and evaluation of rule-based system: methodology and case studies. A review [Article] / Philippe Debaeke ; Nathalie Munier-Jolain ; Michèle Bertrand . - 2009 . - p. 73-86. Langues : Français (fre) in Agronomy for Sustainable Development > Vol.29, n°1 [01/01/2009] . - p. 73-86 Catégories : [Thesagri] agriculture [Thesagri] expérimentation agricole [Thesagri] système de culture Note de contenu : The economic and regulatory context of crop production changes rapidly, but concerns about agricultural sustainability, including environmental impacts, are increasing steadily. To cope with complexity and uncertainty, innovative methodologies are required for designing, managing and evaluating prototype cropping systems. A generic approach combining iteratively design of cropping systems and evaluation of their performances is presented in this review article. It includes 5 main steps: (1) defining the set of goals and constraints for each cropping system, (2) identifying a suitable agronomic strategy, (3) formulating the consistent set of technical decision rules, (4) applying and evaluating the rule-based system, and (5) validating or refining the strategy and the rules. This methodology was applied to a range of environmental and production contexts, in a perspective of integrated crop production (ICP) prototyping. Three cropping system experiments conducted in France were brought together to demonstrate the potentialities of this system approach and discuss the methodological bottlenecks to address. The three case studies differed by the context of crop production and resource use: adaptation to limited irrigation water (Toulouse), introduction of innovative cropping systems (Versailles), and substitution of herbicides by non-chemical methods (Dijon). The consequences of the specific objectives in each case study on the experimental design and the evaluation process were discussed. Special attention was paid to the time step of the evaluation process, the duration of the improvement loops when prototyping cropping systems, the global evaluation of the systems and the evaluation of individual decision rules.

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Mobility, turnover and storage of pollutants in soils, sediments and waters: achievements and results of the EU project AquaTerra. A review in Agronomy for Sustainable Development, Vol.29, n°1 ([01/01/2009])

Public ISBD [article]  inAgronomy for Sustainable Development > Vol.29, n°1 [01/01/2009] . - p. 161- 173 Titre : Mobility, turnover and storage of pollutants in soils, sediments and waters: achievements and results of the EU project AquaTerra. A review Type de document : Article Année de publication : 2009 Article en page(s) : p. 161- 173 Langues : Français (fre) Catégories : [Thesagri] pesticide [Thesagri] polluant [Thesagri] sol Note de contenu : AquaTerra is one of the first environmental projects within the 6th Framework program by the European Commission. It began in June 2004 with a multidisciplinary team of 45 partner organizations from 13 EU countries, Switzerland, Serbia, Romania and Montenegro. Results from sampling and modeling in 4 large river basins (Ebro, Danube, Elbe and Meuse) and one catchment of the Brévilles Spring in France led to new evaluations of diffuse and hotspot input of persistent organic and metal pollutants including dynamics of pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, as well as metal turnover and accumulation. While degradation of selected organic compounds could be demonstrated under controlled conditions in the laboratory, turnover of most persistent pollutants in the field seems to range from decades to centuries. First investigations of long-term cumulative and degradation effects, particularly in the context of climate change, have shown that it is also necessary to consider the predictions of more than one climate model when trying to assess future impacts. This is largely controlled by uncertainties in climate model responses. It is becoming evident, however, that changes to the climate will have important impacts on the diffusion and degradation of pollutants in space and time that are just at the start of their exploration. [article] Mobility, turnover and storage of pollutants in soils, sediments and waters: achievements and results of the EU project AquaTerra. A review [Article] . - 2009 . - p. 161- 173. Langues : Français (fre) in Agronomy for Sustainable Development > Vol.29, n°1 [01/01/2009] . - p. 161- 173 Catégories : [Thesagri] pesticide [Thesagri] polluant [Thesagri] sol Note de contenu : AquaTerra is one of the first environmental projects within the 6th Framework program by the European Commission. It began in June 2004 with a multidisciplinary team of 45 partner organizations from 13 EU countries, Switzerland, Serbia, Romania and Montenegro. Results from sampling and modeling in 4 large river basins (Ebro, Danube, Elbe and Meuse) and one catchment of the Brévilles Spring in France led to new evaluations of diffuse and hotspot input of persistent organic and metal pollutants including dynamics of pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, as well as metal turnover and accumulation. While degradation of selected organic compounds could be demonstrated under controlled conditions in the laboratory, turnover of most persistent pollutants in the field seems to range from decades to centuries. First investigations of long-term cumulative and degradation effects, particularly in the context of climate change, have shown that it is also necessary to consider the predictions of more than one climate model when trying to assess future impacts. This is largely controlled by uncertainties in climate model responses. It is becoming evident, however, that changes to the climate will have important impacts on the diffusion and degradation of pollutants in space and time that are just at the start of their exploration.

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REV-00000171	Vol.29, n°1 - 01/01/2009	Revue	Archives sous-sol	Documentaires	Disponible